We argue that the contemporary distinction between narrative and paradigmatic modes of discourse is largely a rhetorical issue of differences in style. Clear structural parallels may be drawn between these apparently different styles of writing. Such parallels may be sufficiently close to permit the application of a single taxonomy of genres for the two. We further argue that Bakhtin's sketch of a taxonomy of novelistic genres may be applied to many narrative and paradigmatic genres including the paradigmatic writing of psychology. The availability of particular genres both constrains and enables particular stances on human action. This taxonomy may be particularly useful for sorting out different developmental perspectives by considering generic differences in the treatment of person, place, and time as well as in their integration. 

In recent years there has been a resurgence in the human sciences of speculation concerning alternate ways of knowing in Western cultures. These alternatives have been variously characterized as phronesis and sophia (Gadamer, 1989), narrative and scientific (Lyotard, 1984), narrative and rational (Fisher, 1984), and narrative and paradigmatic (Bruner, 1986). Although it is beyond the scope of the present paper, these contrasts could also be profitably compared to the following distinctions: parole and langue, syntagm and paradigm, orality and literacy. For each contrast, the first emphasizes the temporal, occasional, local, sequential, and contingent and the latter the structural, ideal, stable, and lawful. Moreover, the first mode is often taken to represent a less formalized style of thought and speech embodying common sense and exemplary accounts as guides to action and wisdom. The second represents a more formal, principled, and lettered manner of reasoning and communication. These differences of style may equally be applied as modes of thought, dialects of speech, or styles of writing. Bruner (1986) has provided a concise summary of the characteristics of each of what he calls modes that seems generally appropriate to the various versions of the distinction. In brief, within the paradigmatic mode of thought or discursive dialect reference strives to be clear, categories well defined, observations validated according to definite criteria, events explained by nomic subsumption, and explanation formal, logical and, if possible, mathematical. The paradigmatic dialect strives to be an "official" dialect, that speak not only clearly but univocally, with a single voice. It attempts to formulate questions as explicitly as possible and to seek completeness, validity, closure, and agreement in the answers to these questions. Hence, in paradigmatic writing, reference is transparent, ambiguity is minimized, and the language used is denotative and univocally rational. Narratives, on the other hand, are said to dwell on the local, temporal, historical, and emergent conditions of actions and experience (Carr, 1986; Crites, 1971; Ricoeur, 1983/1984). The narrative speaks not as a single unified voice, but rather as a polyphony of the vernacular, the quotidian, and the profane, as well as of the voices of common sense, judgment, tact, and taste (Gadamer, 1989). The desiderata are good stories, gripping dramas, and believable accounts. Verisimilitude may stand for validity. Narrative replaces general notions with particular examples and may sacrifice transparency of reference in order to communicate the meaning and importance of events. Narrative elements will be selected to the degree they forward the goals of coherence, believability, and interest. Narrative, moreover, is declared to be inherently ambiguous, open-ended, and may sacrifice clarity for suggestiveness. These and similar listings of differences do tend to create an impression of radically different modes of discourse or thought. 

It is scarcely surprising, in light of this extensive array of differences that the narrative/paradigmatic distinction has become increasing conflated with the modern/postmodern distinction (e.g., Day & Tappan, 1996; Hermans, Kempen, & van Loon, 1992). We will argue, that these apparent differences may be largely matters of style and that the paradigmatic is simply a specialized development of the narrative style. Hence we will, in this paper, treat the paradigmatic is essentially a scientific, learned "refinement" and idealization of the implicit coherence--generating techniques of narrative. We seek, drawing on Bakhtinian insights, to draw parallels between narrative and paradigmatic "genres". In so doing we wish also to emphasize the narrative roots of a paradigmatic scientific image of the person in spatial and temporal context and to trace the narrative history of our framing of human development. We will also argue and present evidence that the narrative mode itself has a history and that the current identification of the narrative mode with the relativism, open-endedness, and dialogism of the postmodern is a current development of narrative and not a transcendent, ahistorical property of narrative per se. Narrative does not stand on either side of the modern/postmodern divided but is cleft by it as much as is the paradigmatic (Lourenço, 1996). 

The Experimental Report as an Implicit Narrative. Mainstream psychology has been and continues to be committed to the cultivation of a rigorous paradigmatic style of writing (Bazerman, 1987, 1988). This remains true in spite of a fairly vigorous awakening interest, within psychology, in narrative approaches to understanding human action (Bruner, 1986, 1990; Freeman, 1984; Gergen & Gergen, 1983, 1984; Hermans, Kempen, & van Loon, 1992; Lee, 1994; Sarbin, 1986; Tappan, 1989). A large part of undergraduate and graduate training in psychology consists in the enculturation into a particular paradigmatic style of discourse and thought. There is scarcely a textbook of psychology available that does not explain, by showing as well as telling, the distinctiveness and virtue of the paradigmatic stance. Psychologists strive to maintain this stance through the methodological rigor they profess and practice as well as through the adoption of a self-consciously paradigmatic style. Thus, in the mainstream journal report in psychology we find a prototypical attempt to confine writing to just such a paradigmatic dialect. 

In spite of the efforts to employ the paradigmatic style exclusively it may be rhetorically necessary to trade on narrative stylings in various phases of our discourse. It has been argued, for example, that the impact of purely paradigmatic writing is muted since the facts cannot literally "speak for themselves, and no amount of transparent, referential description can bring them alive" (Spence, 1986, p. 221). The use of examples and anecdotes frequently enliven and often clarify turgid, obscure, or difficult paradigmatic writings. However, the argument we wish to stress here is that, at a more structural level, paradigmatic writing may be revealed to maintain a basically narrative form. Consider, for example, a prototypical example of paradigmatic writing, the experimental report containing a formal sequence of reasoning involving theory, reasoning about theory, deduction of hypotheses, arguments about correspondence rules and observation statements, specific empirical predictions following from particular operations, and so on. This hypothetico-deductive structure is, on the face of it, prototypically paradigmatic. On the other hand, the sequence of conceptual "events" may be read as a narrative or story (cf., Howard, 1991; Ong, 1982). Underlying the paradigmatic formalism is a tacit narrative with classic dramatic interest. Typically, the INTRODUCTION begins with a review or exposition of the current state of affairs and reveals some trouble (i.e., the prototypical occasion for narration, Burke, 1950); that is, a lack, a breach, or a crisis in our understanding of some aspect of the field. To meet this challenge a hypothesis is introduced that promises to resolve the lack, breach, or crisis. This hypothesis risks a prediction and hence sets up a dramatic tension that can be resolved in the narrative only by the dramatic activity of the ordeal of experimental test in the METHOD section. The research report reaches a climax in the final statistical tests of significance reported in the RESULTS. This climax is followed by the dénouement of the DISCUSSION in which the implication of the tests for the theory is considered with the resolution of the initial crisis. Thus, the experimental report may be understood as embodying an idealized and abstract narrative fabula that may nonetheless accommodate an indeterminate number of sjuzhets. Both the form and content of these stories may be important for the probative value and the persuasive impact of the report. In its evident paradigmatic style the report reveals an adherence to the canons of logic and evidence and in its implicit narrative structure it tells a potentially compelling drama of a hypothesis exposed to the ordeal of possible disconfirmation in the ongoing adventure of science. 

The foregoing exercise led us to the opinion that the distinction between the paradigmatic and the narrative is not perhaps so clear as implied in the rather contrasting descriptions given for each. In the same way that we have derived narrative qualities out of the paradigmatic structure of the scientific argument so the literary critic interprets stories in paradigmatic discourse. Paradigmatic and narrative discourse may both be seen as hermeneutic of the human experience in that they ground interpretations by "setting forth the materials and conditions within which any human act was engendered in order to see that act in its fullness" (Dixon, 1977, p. 3). By seeing each in the light of the other we hope to highlight features that are otherwise implicit and obscure and thereby obtain an understanding of the rhetorical aspects of the discourse of psychology a different and perhaps illuminating way (Gadamer, 1989). 

In what follows we employ this hermeneutic understanding of narrative in presenting Bakhtin's chronotopic approach to novelistic genres. Bakhtin designates chronotope (literally, "time-space" or "time-place") as "the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spacial relationships" (1981, p. 84). For Bakhtin the novel has been a major hermeneutic of the conditions of human existence for Western culture providing an institution embodying the evolving world view of the West. More explicitly, the evolution of the novelistic genre in the West is characterized by an increasingly explicit and differentiated exposition of time, and especially, by a growing sense of the interdependence of history and culture in human understanding, action, and sense of self. On the view that paradigmatic discourse of science is a stylistic variant of narrative we sought to uncover, within the paradigmatic writing of psychology, implicit genres and subgenres such as those discussed by Bakhtin. 

Genres and Chronotopes: It is our thesis that report writing in mainstream psychology shares many features described by Bakhtin (1981, 1986) in his historical generic typology of the novel and that these reflect particular views of the nature of the individual and the world. Three major subcategories of the novel described by Bakhtin are the travel romance, the narrative of ordeal (also sometimes characterized by Bakhtin as a romance), and the Bildungsroman. The differing forms of the novel are seen as concrete cultural-historical developments that created changed understandings of the nature of, and relations among, people, their world, and, perhaps most significantly, time. Functioning within these genres constrains and enables particular world views. We argue that the first of these Bakhtinian genres, the travel romance, shares a number of features with the naturalistic observational report found in many sub-disciplines of psychology, such as ecological psychology, clinical and developmental psychology, and in related areas of the social sciences, such as human ethology and sociobiology, ethnomethodology, sociolinguistics, and grounded theory. A second genre, the narrative of ordeal, corresponds, we will argue, in many respects to the experimental report. For both genres the image of life as a journey is pervasive. The ordeal narrative is also a romance, one in which the journey becomes a mere preparation for a central event in the life of the hero, the test or ordeal. A third major genre, the Bildungsroman, exists in a number of variants, examples of which may be found in theories of developmental psychology. In drawing these parallels it is our intention to uncover common presuppositions in their corresponding genres that reveal our understanding of person, place, and time. 

The Travel Romance: Life as Journey. The metaphor of life as a journey is very ancient and may even provide the founding metaphor for narrative. Myths from Ethiopia to North America tell of the origins of the "people" in terms of a journey, a movement through space and time, often embodied in the stages of initiation into a community formed by those people (Goody, 1987). Yet wherever they come from and wherever they go they always remain the people. The travel romance is a tale of eternal recurrence and history is always about the present (Goody, 1987). 

Person. In the travel romance or adventure novel of every-day life, the hero is not the focus of the writer's attention but, according to Bakhtin, "a point moving in space," with "no essential distinguishing characteristics" (1986, p. 10). The hero of this genre is a cipher or factotum serving merely to "demonstrate the spatial and static social diversity of the world" (1986, p. 10). The hero is an observer of the everyday activities of others, an outsider who frequently fails to understand, or understands differently than the insider, the conventions of the world observed. Frequently, this observer is a rogue, fool, clown, courtesan, traveler, pilgrim, or, even, in the paradigm case of Lucius Apuleius in The Golden Ass, a person transformed into an animal (thereby rendering him even more inconspicuous in his eavesdropping). The hero as observer is then permitted to stand back from life and observe it in all its externality and strangeness. Owing to a special or marginal status, the observer is given leave to stare at and comment on things which community members may be constrained from noticing or discussing. 

It has been noted that the travel romance encompasses more than the novelistic genres. The travel romance is similar to documentary narratives of discovery and transformation. Brown (1990) considers, as examples, the voyages of discovery, metaphorical and literal, of Descartes and Darwin among others. He focuses on the traveler/observer metaphor and on the rhetorical effect on the narration of the transformation from naive outsider to sophisticated insider. We would also characterize as romances of everyday life the quasi-autobiographical genres of memoire, annals, and res gestae (Misch, 1950; Weintraub, 1975, 1978). These range from mere listing of the quotidian events and achievements of individual lives to accounts of spectacular and even magical feats and adventures, frequently presented as first person narratives (Misch, 1950). In these very early accounts of kings and nobles presented in a very stylized first person, we encounter conventional descriptions of the good life of virtuous and meritorious conduct. There is little sense of particularity to these lives, each one being cast in the standard mold. 

The views of person, place, and time inherent in these genres appear to be instantiated in observational and naturalistic approaches to the paradigmatic study of human action. The typical aim of observational studies in developmental psychology and human ethology is a nomothetic description of persons and context. The subject of observation stands as a token to a type. The stance of the observer is that of an outsider who is given leave, for professional and scientific reasons, to observe and dwell upon what people usually ignore and/or conceal. Indeed, in seeking permission to observe people, nomothetically oriented scientific observers have traditionally disavowed any interest in the specific people observed and the anonymity of subjects is ritually guaranteed. Technology has replaced magical transformation as the means by which the observer is rendered inconspicuous. The one-way mirror, supplemented now by a considerable electronic audio-visual apparatus, is virtually emblematic of the profession. Few professionally trained psychologists have failed to spend time observing others by way of these audio-visual prostheses. Indeed, psychology's long-standing concern about the potential impact of an observer's presence on those observed has generated a large body of literature detailing procedures for controlling the observer's impact and making observation unobtrusive. The etic and emic are clearly separated and the observer and the observed appear to be considered to exist in different epistemological dimensions. 

The interest in the naturalistic observational report is not typically in the fate or characteristics of the specific individual, denoted as subject. Rather, the subject, as such, reveals the moment to moment propensities and lawful behavior of an entity-of-that-sort, or reveals the environmental and social conditions that present themselves to or through an entity-of-that-sort. Since the method is that of observation, the reports tend to be very descriptive accounts of external characteristics. The products of such observation studies are often lists and tables of cross-correlations, inventories, ethograms, scales, and coding manuals that itemize behavior patterns that may be typically expected under such and such conditions. Thus, we learned from the Parten (1932) scale that children may be engaged in certain varieties of play or from the detailed ethograms of McGrew (1972), we see the wonderful variety of forms and styles in which one child may inflict mayhem upon another. 

Time. Bakhtin also notes that the understanding of time in the romance of everyday life is comparatively rudimentary. "In this type of novel, time in and of itself lacks any significance or historical coloring; even 'biological' time -- the hero's age, his progress from youth through maturity to old age -- is either completely absent or is noted only as a matter of form" (1986, p. 11). Only the notion of sequences of action that Bakhtin calls adventure time, the transitions of moments, hours, or days is to be found. That is, time is depicted merely as that which is necessary for some sequence of actions to transpire, as in "the next day", "a few moments later", and the like. It is because of the absence of historical time that the travel romance is claimed to present a "purely spatial and static" picture of the world's diversity. 

In the naturalistic observational report the notion of time is employed as a parameter of description. Time enters this genre only as the necessary matrix within which events occur and may be described. Action is described in terms of its duration, frequency, rate, or sequence (Hutt & Hutt, 1970; Bakeman & Gottman, 1986). Time is employed as a technical device with which to facilitate and systematize the recording and organizing of events. Age is typically considered only formally, that is, behaviors may be cross-tabulated in terms of likely ages at which they may be observed more or less frequently. 

Place. Not having the weight of history, the world of the travel romance is rendered a mere setting, the dominant characteristic of which is the "spatial contiguity of differences and contrasts" (1986, p. 11). The world is curiously uniform. Wherever the hero travels the basic conditions remain the same. As Bakhtin notes, in its reduction of the world to "individual things, phenomena, and events that are simply contiguous or alternating" (1986, p. 11), a certain naturalistic quality may be said to characterize this subcategory of the novel. In the paradigmatic style we note that uniformity of setting is often critical in observation reports and standardized nurseries, playrooms, living rooms, and work-places are often employed. Field observations are, however, employed specifically to achieve "ecological validity," that is, to place the typical person in the typical environment containing essential and standard features. The travel romance and observational report constitute a genre that seeks to provide first-hand accounts of the static facts, as they occurred, in the place they occurred. These accounts portray what are taken to be stable, repeatable human actions under specifiable and stable conditions. The function of reports of this type is documentary in the same way that the chronological lists of achievements of ancient rulers that come down to us as lists of titles served an explicit documentary function (Misch, 1950). 

The Ordeal Romance and the Experimental Report: Life as a Test. 

"If there is a holy grail to neural functioning," says [Paul] Rapp, "chaos theory will help us find it." (McAuliffe, 1990, p. 40) 

In the romances of adventure the focus is on the activities in the world, no particular activities being particularly privileged. In the romance of ordeal the one particular activity stands out from all the rest. It is essentially the Christian notion of the final judgment in which one's character, or some essential quality of the person, is revealed for what it is. This represents some central action as an event of transcendent importance. 

The observational report, although generally conforming to the paradigmatic style is easily assimilated to the narrative style. It frequently employs concrete examples of individual activities and often employs exemplary cases. Since the ostensive rationale for the observational report is the study of human action in context, the focus is on physical action. The experimental report, as one of the purest forms of paradigmatic writing, involves considerable abstraction. This is illustrated in Riegel's (1973, p. 353) observation that "as Piaget shifts from a methodology of observational interpretations to those of experimentation, the dialectic paradigm of accommodation and assimilation is being neglected and interpretations proposed in terms of traditional logic." Thus we move from the concrete actors acting to an already rather abstract biological process (assimilation and accommodation) to a still more abstract notion of terms and relations. Moreover, these terms and relations move us from a description of an observed external world to an analysis an inferred internal world. In the romance of ordeal the hero is merely the vessel, and the hero's activity merely the outward sign, of a quality within. 

Person. In the novel of ordeal the focus shifts from the world to the hero. Indeed, as Bakhtin writes, "in the majority of cases the surrounding world and the secondary characters are transformed into a mere background for the hero, into a decoration, a setting" (1986, p. 15). The novel of ordeal is constructed, according to Bakhtin, as a "series of tests of the main heroes, tests of their fidelity, valour, bravery, virtue, nobility, sanctity, and so on" (1986, p. 11). The hero's sole purpose is to embody values. The hero is born to be tested for adherence to such values. One does not become a hero by surviving the test, one's status as a hero is simply corroborated by the test. The hero of the novel of ordeal may be seen as a vessel containing the qualities that are the underlying subject matter of the novel. The function of the ordeal itself is to verify and affirm such qualities, whether it be courage, the believer's faith, or the lover's fidelity. The ordeal is ubiquitous in Western literature and elements are found as well in the travel novel and Bildungsroman. Historically, the notion of ordeal itself developed as a theme within the travel romance, culminating in the chivalric tale in which all other aspects of narrative subserve this end. The ordeal may also serve as a guiding metaphor in autobiographical accounts of scientists (Levinson, 1978). However, the image of the hero undergoing test by ordeal may also be seen to be represented much more abstractly in science in the form of the proxy, hypothesis. 

In the early empiricist version of science it was Nature that was explicitly personified by Bacon as subjected to test by ordeal while in later hypothetico-deductive versions of science it is hypothesis that is implicitly so personified. The hypothesis is complete before its encounter with the test. Its qualities are given or "ready-made" as it approaches the moment of its testing. The test cannot change these qualities; it can only corroborate or deny them. The experiment itself remains a "context of justification," for which the origins of the hypothesis are unimportant and outside the purview of the genre (e.g., Popper, 1968). The test is not a "formative experience" because in the "very immutability of the hero lies the entire point" (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 13). If the hero were to be transformed by the ordeal then the judgment is rendered invalid within the genre. It is the very stability of the hero that occasions the test itself, for the test is of timeless verities such as virtue, merit, guilt, humility, contrition, piety, and truth. The point is to test, not to create. The world of the ordeal is "a kind of court of law for the hero" (1986, p. 12) just as the trial by ordeal was a test of guilt or innocence. One must judge what the hero is, not what s/he will become or what might emerge with further development. 

Time. The notion of time, so constricted in the travel novel, also plays a modest role in the novel of the ordeal. Time in this genre "lacks any real biographical duration" (p. 14) and, as in the case of the travel romance, is merely implicit in the organization of events. Events tend to be compressed creating a psychological or episodic time that affords a sense of moment, danger, and suspense as hypotheses are offered, the conditions and results of testing described, and conclusions drawn. The test conditions exist outside any sense of historical time. In principle, one of the central desiderata of the experimental report is that it provide all essential details for its precise replication. An experiment is not essentially a historical event but an affirmation or denial for all time and that may therefore be repeated indefinitely. 

Place. Locale in this genre also lacks any concrete connection to the larger pedestrian world. This follows from the major theme that is a transcendent quest for a holy grail. From Sir Gawain and the Green Knight to Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade the final test of the hero is made on hallowed ground, a place consecrated for just such a test. This is a vaguely localized place, sometimes reminiscent of the exotic locales of the travel romance. It may be a place enshrined outside time, a dwelling place for the uncovering of eternal qualities embodied in the hero. It is a place to which the hero journeys through a series of minor trials and adventures and tests but it is only through the final crucial test on holy ground that the virtue of the hero is raised above mere speculation and opinion to certainty. Similarly, the locale for the scientific experiment is an abstract laboratory of eternal recurrence, removed from the spatial and temporal constraints of everyday life. The focus on the "naturalistic" locale of the travel romance or observational report is absent here. There is also an initial journey as both the experimenter and the hypothesis must pass a series of tests, both institutional and intellectual, to make it to the final test. In this genre the image of the scientific laboratory replaces that of the religious shrine as the testing ground of the virtue of truth, where the hypothesis will be corroborated or shown to be false. 

In summary, in the novel of ordeal there is no historical interaction among person, time, and space. The hero dwells in a world without history or where history is merely a preamble to the test. Both hero and setting are presented as ready-made, complete, and unchanging. The hero is a container, a dwelling place for some quality and the ordeal "the arena of the struggle and testing of the hero" (1986, p. 11). The prevalence and status of the genre of the experimental report has tended to relegate the cultural-historical project within psychology to a somewhat marginal role. 

The Bildungsroman, the novel of formation or emergence, has been more broadly defined in English as "the novel of youth, the novel of education, of apprenticeship, of adolescence, of initiation" (Buckley, 1974, p. vii-viii). The Bildungsroman emerged as a literary genre in late eighteenth century Germany, Goethe's Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship being uniformly regarded as prototypical. The earlier Romances have a distinctly aristocratic bias. Their heroes are born not made and have inherent qualities that simply must be discovered. The Bildungsroman, on the other hand, is a genre of the Bourgeoisie, of those who strive to become cultivated, not having been born to that station in life. Hence, it is not surprising that the genre emerges at roughly the same time as evolutionary thought and the historically oriented human sciences. Indeed, but for its self-conscious avoidance of discussion of human evolution, Darwin's Origin of Species might be the prototype of a paradigmatic version of the Bildungsroman. 

The Person in Time-Space: Chronotopes. The Bildungsroman is, above all, the story of emergence in which the notions of person, time, and space become explicitly coordinated and elaborated such that it becomes difficult to discuss them separately. A major characteristic of the genre is an emerging focus on development in the context of a historically evolving world. This, in turn, entails an evolution of the understanding of temporality, from an idyllic, cyclical time to a historical sense of time as well as a historical development of the notion of development itself from traditional through modern to anticipations of postformal and even postmodern conceptions. The sense of development found within the Bildungsroman ranges from local reenactments of an eternal idealized process, through an image of a linear progression to a higher form of life, to a relativized and somewhat chastened sense of the finite limits of experience and achievement. The special image of the genre, that of the person "in the process of becoming" (1986, p. 19), depends upon a radically different conception of time than that present in the travel and ordeal novels. It is a conception that is itself created through a series of developments. Bakhtin discusses five historical variants of the Bildungsroman, each distinguished by the extent to which it assimilates historical time and sociocultural context in its depiction of human emergence. The first two versions we combine and characterize as naturalistic. The next two versions we refer to as sociocultural and the fifth and final form as cultural-historical (See Table 1). 

Naturalistic Development (progressive and regressive): These subgenres introduce the notion of cyclical or idyllic time. Here emergence "is cyclical in nature, repeating itself in each life" (1986, p. 22). In cyclical or idyllic time one may chart development "from childhood through youth and maturity to old age, showing all those essential internal changes in a person's nature and views that take place as he (sic) grows older" (1986, p. 22). These changes may be seen as progressive and orthogenic. This is a "progressive narrative" of the sort discussed by Gergen & Gergen (1986) and is characterized by a linking of events in such a way that there is movement along an evaluative dimension over time to some goal state. The formal properties are the presence of a goal and a linkage of all events in the narrative to that goal. The similarities of this to the ordeal genre are striking. The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget has been taken as an exemplar of this progressive form of naturalistic development. Each person's life exemplifies this progressive life cycle consisting of a fixed sequence of hierarchical stages and culminating in formal operational thought. Piagetian time is cyclical both inasmuch as the essential processes of development are repeated within the life of each individual and in the sense that each stage transition is another epicycle governed by the functional invariants. Consistent with the focus on cyclical time, Piaget's narrative is also in the style of the naturalistic Bildungsroman inasmuch as development is thematized primarily as a natural and intrinsic development rather than a process of extrinsic worldly social transactions. Although Piaget is clearly sensitive to the impact of social relations, their function is merely to activate dialectically inevitable biological and logico-mathematical structures (Rogoff, 1990; Wartofsky, 1983). 

Another type of naturalistic cyclical emergence discussed by Bakhtin, "traces a typically repeating path of man's emergence from youthful idealism and fantasies to mature sobriety and practicality" (1986, p. 22). The image reflected in this more ironic type of novel of emergence is that of a world "through which every person must pass and derive one and the same result: one becomes more sober, experiencing some degree of resignation" (1986, p. 22). An important consequence of the notion of cyclical time is that everyone must trace the same essential course of development through the inevitable cycle. Here the individual undergoes various transformations, but the transformations are, as before, pre-given and timeless. There is also some correspondence between this variant of the naturalistic Bildungsroman and the notion of the regressive narrative that Gergen & Gergen (1986) ascribe to Freudian psychology in which development is seen as a frequently, perhaps inevitably, moving away from the progressive possibility of achieving a valued end state. Although Freud understood his own system as a positive and deterministic science (e.g., Grunbaum, 1984), there is also a more biographical sense (see below) of emergence in the writing of Freud than there is perhaps in Piaget. That is, there is a greater focus in the Freudian narrative on the individual deviations from pattern, on the individual differences in possible life narratives. 

Sociocultural Development. In the sociocultural Bildungsroman development loses its cyclical quality and proceeds within biographical time, passing "through unrepeatable, individual stages" (1986, p. 22) in a more explicit enculturation or socialization as opposed to a naturalistic orthogenesis. This version exemplifies the narrative form in which "the growing ego learns to accommodate itself to, and internalize, the patterns of its society" (Beer, 1983, p. 131). "Emergence here, is the result of the entire totality of changing life circumstances and events, activity and work" (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 22). Both the individual's character and life course are shaped through experience. Bakhtin here also briefly mentions a fourth novel of emergence that is characterized by a specific pedagogical ideal. This didactic-pedagogical variant of the sociocultural novel of emergence "depicts the pedagogical process of education in the strict sense of the word" (1986, p. 22-23). 

A recent attempt at narrative characterization of development approximating the sociocultural Bildungsroman is that of Tappan (1989). Of special interest to the present analysis is Tappan's (1989) discussion of the ironic or satiric narrative (Frye, 1957; White, 1973) which he applies to a scheme of adolescent ethical development (Perry, 1970). In his discussion of the ironic or satiric narrative Tappan explicitly considers cultural, historical, and contextual factors in the evaluation of the ethical narratives of adolescents. 

A broad psychological perspective that resembles most closely that of the Bildungsroman of socialization, and especially that of the didactic-pedagogical sort, is that of Vygotsky (1978, 1987). Vygotsky's enduring interest was in understanding the development of the "higher psychological functions" as achieved through an apprenticeship of the infant and child to the instruction of the adult or more skilled peer. The notion of the psychological internalization of culture is a central problem and developmental process for Vygotsky. In the transition from the interpsychic plane of the apprenticeship the child eventually graduates to the intrapsychic plane having internalized the patterns of society. In the Vygotskian narrative the individual gains a measure of autonomy from other social agents through this process of internalization of culture. Vygotsky's student Leont'ev further elaborated this implicit Bildungsroman of Vygotsky in his own perspective, which he called Activity Theory. Leont'ev's own story of development (e.g., Leont'ev, 1972, 1986) focused on the motivational aspects of activity and, in particular, on how the motivation of activity was culturally and practically experienced (Leont'ev and Luria, 1968). In the course of development the individual learns to thematize activities, engendering meaning, purpose, and plot to lived experience. However, some aspects of the Vygotskian account also show some clear signs of the fifth, cultural-historical, Bildungsroman. 

Cultural-Historical Development. In the last type of novel of emergence discussed by Bakhtin, individual development "is inseparably linked to historical emergence" (1986, p. 23). In both the naturalistic and sociocultural versions of this genre, Bakhtin argues that development takes place against a static background with little or no consideration given to historical change in the world in which the individual develops. In the case of this last, cultural-historical variant, Bildung comes to refer both to the cultivation of the individual and to the historical emergence of the larger culture (Gadamer, 1989). There is no longer an opposition between the self-contained individual and society. Emergence "is no longer [one's] own private affair" (1986, p. 23). Here both the individual and society, both self and other, are entering the uncharted territory of history in the making. The world itself is changing along with and, indeed, through the experiences of individuals. Vygotsky was formulating his notions of individual development during a period of social revolution and was faced with the task of understanding individual development in the context of a rapidly changing society. In particular, there was a clear and present political agenda to the transform a feudal society into an advanced, industrialized nation. Both the practical pedagogical elements of his theory as well as the focus on the "higher psychological functions" were very much guided by the revolutionary context (Wertsch & Youniss, 1987). However, this historical dimension of Vygotsky's project remained undeveloped and even undermined by other aspects of Vygotsky's agenda (Wertsch, 1991). The supplementing of Vygotsky's theory with Bakhtinian insights (Kozulin, 1990; Wertsch, 1991) appears to be moving in the direction of creating a cultural-historical psychology consistent with the perspectives on person, time, and place exemplified in this version of the Bildungsroman. What the means and modes of this emerging "paradigm" of psychology might be is not yet clear. However, to simply characterize it as "narrative" is neither helpful nor informative. From our perspective, the paradigmatic "Bildungsroman" is as likely to be constructed on a highly quantified dynamical systems approach as upon an exclusively qualitative narrative or "grounded" methods. 

Paradigmatic Summary and Cultural-Historical Conclusions: As Bakhtin endeavored to show, our notions of development have themselves a cultural-historical development. In Table 1 we have summarized the focal issues in each Bakhtinian genre. The Romances are distinguished by a difference in focus on person and place. 

Table 1: The Foci of Bakhtinian Genres  

Genre:  
 

	Person	Place	Time
Romance:
Journey	Token for Type	Secular	Sequential
Ordeal	Container of Qualities	Holy	Episodic
Bildungsroman:
Naturalistic	Organic	Environmental	Cyclical
Sociocultural	Social	Societal	Biographical
Cultural-Historical	Cultural	Cultural	Historical

In the travel romance the individual is a token of a type and the real focus is on the diversity of the secular world. In the ordeal the individual is a container of a transcendent virtue or vice that is the true focus of the genre. In contrast to the travel romance, place is a special, sacred; the station point of "the view from nowhere." In both cases time is a pragmatic necessity providing a matrix for action, sequential in the case of the worldly activities of individuals-of-that-sort, episodic in the case of the test or ordeal. The Bildungsromane are distinguished by degrees of integration of person, place, and time. This integration itself appears to have emerged historically in phases, integrating first person and a naturalistic, organic sense of place and time. This naturalistic development is then placed in a sociocultural and sometimes specifically educational context to become social development. Finally, human development is placed in a cultural-historical context entailing a new sense of emergence in historically-effective time (sensu Gadamer, 1989). Although each of these genres is taken to have been the result of historical development they are not considered to be stages in that there is no sense of successive replacement. Clearly these genres coexist and provide rhetorical frames for different sorts of perspectives of human action and experience. These genres have various sources and sequelae but a critical element in this development continues to be the genres and modes of discourse and thought that change, and are changed by, our self understanding. 

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